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<div class="moz-cite-prefix">Jeff,<br>
<br>
Thank you for calling this article to our attention. We
"Stovers" appreciate the supportive roles such as from
Agroforestry people and agencies.<br>
<br>
My copy did not download Figure 2 about Maize production in
Malawi. Seems interesting. Can you provide it or direct us to
where it can be seen?<br>
<br>
Thanks,<br>
<br>
Paul<br>
<pre class="moz-signature" cols="72">Doc / Dr TLUD / Prof. Paul S. Anderson, PhD
Email: <a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:psanders@ilstu.edu">psanders@ilstu.edu</a>
Skype: paultlud Phone: +1-309-452-7072
Website: <a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="http://www.drtlud.com">www.drtlud.com</a></pre>
On 9/12/2013 9:25 AM, Jeff Holiman wrote:<br>
</div>
<blockquote
cite="mid:CABU+sb68LjjKm_Xvwe9nzBP646cXP8G8q7Fzd1d4h+ea2cF9jQ@mail.gmail.com"
type="cite">
<div dir="ltr">
<div>Greetings.</div>
This article I am forwarding "The benefits of agroforestry
systems for food and nutritional security" pertains to stoves
and biochar lists where fuel quality is an important
consideration. There is a short section about how agroforestry
practices could benefit food and fuel situations, and
particularly when coupled with clean stove programs. Though this
article primarily pertains to Sub-Saharan Africa where
incidence of malnutrition is alarming, the concepts of
agroforestry may be applied other climates.
<div>
Kind regards,</div>
<div>Jeff <br>
<div><br>
<div><br>
<div class="gmail_quote">---------- Forwarded message
----------<br>
From: <b class="gmail_sendername">The Overstory</b> <span
dir="ltr"><<a moz-do-not-send="true"
href="mailto:overstory@agroforestry.net">overstory@agroforestry.net</a>></span><br>
Date: Wed, Sep 11, 2013 at 1:29 PM<br>
Subject: The Overstory #258: The benefits of
agroforestry systems for food and nutritional security<br>
To: Jeff <br>
<br>
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<div align="center"><span style="">A<em>s well
as directly providing edible products,
agroforestry trees support food
production by a range of other means,
including by providing shade and support
for crops that need it, supporting
animal production and improving soil
fertility.</em></span></div>
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align="left">
<hr>
<h2>The Overstory #258</h2>
<h2>The benefits of agroforestry systems for
food and nutritional security</h2>
<h3>by Ramni Jamnadass, Frank Place, Emmanuel
Torquebiau, Eric Malézieux, Miyuki Iiyama,
Gudeta W Sileshi, Katja Kehlenbeck, Eliot
Masters, Stepha McMullin, John C Weber, and
Ian K Dawson</h3>
<h4><span style="font-size:1em">September 11,
2013</span></h4>
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<div>
<div>
<div>
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<div>
<div>
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align="left">
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<div>
<h2>Introduction</h2>
<p>Agroforestry
– the
integration of
trees with
annual crop
cultivation,
livestock
production and
other farm
activities –
is a series of
land
management
approaches
practised by
more than 1.2
billion people
worldwide.
Integration
increases farm
productivity
when the
various
components
occupy
complementary
niches and
their
associations
are managed
effectively
(Steffan-Dewenter
et al. 2007).
Agroforestry
systems may
range from
open
parkland
assemblages,
to dense
imitations of
tropical
rainforests
such as home
gardens, to
planted
mixtures of
only a few
species, to
trees planted
in
hedges or on
boundaries of
fields and
farms, with
differing
levels of
human
management of
the various
components.
Agroforestry
systems
provide a
variety of
products and
services that
are important
locally,
nationally and
globally
(Garrity
2004); but
their role is
not always
fully
acknowledged
in development
policies and
practices,
reflecting the
difficult-to-measure,
diverse
pathways by
which trees
affect
people’s
lives. Women
who are
unable to
afford
high-cost
technologies
due to severe
cash and
credit
constraints
often favour
relatively
low-input
agroforestry
options
(Kiptot and
Franzel 2012).</p>
<p>With recent
world food
price spikes,
anthropogenic
climate change
concerns, and
the challenge
of a growing
global human
population,
the roles of
farms and
forests in
supporting
food
availability
and
nutritional
security have
returned
centre-stage
in politics
and
development.
In order to
provide
context for
the on-going
discussions
concerning the
importance of
different
potential
interventions
to support
food and
nutritional
security, in
this
Working Paper
we assess the
direct and
indirect roles
of
agroforestry.
In the
following
section we
discuss
agroforestry’s
importance in
providing food
directly, in
providing
incomes to
support access
to food, in
providing fuel
for cooking,
and through
ecosystem
service
provision.
Many
of the
examples
presented are
from
sub-Saharan
Africa, a
region of
particular
concern where
nine of the 20
nations with
the highest
burden of
child
under-nutrition
worldwide are
found (Bryce
et al. 2008).
Subsequent
sections
provide an
overview of
the current
challenges
that
agroforestry
faces in
better
supporting
food and
nutritional
security, and
discuss
opportunities
for action to
improve the
present
situation. For
further
information on
the
roles of trees
and
agroforestry
in food
provision,
earlier
summaries on
the topic
should not be
neglected
(e.g., Arnold
1990, Hoskins
1990).</p>
<h2>Agroforestry
for food
production</h2>
<p>Solving the
problems of
food and
nutritional
security
requires among
other
interventions
a range of
interconnected
agricultural
approaches,
including
improvements
in staple crop
productivity,
the bio-
fortification
of staples,
and the
cultivation of
a wider range
of edible
plants that
provide
fruits, nuts,
vegetables,
etc., for more
diverse diets
(Frison et al.
2011).
Potential for
the
diversification
of crop
production
lies in the
great range of
lesser-used
indigenous
foods found in
forests and
wooded lands
that are often
richer in
micronutrients,
fibre and
protein than
staple
crops (Leakey
1999,
Malézieux
2013).
Although such
foods have
traditionally
been harvested
from forests
and woodlands,
access to
these
resources is
declining with
deforestation
and forest
degradation
(FAO 2010). In
this context,
cultivation
provides an
alternative
resource.
Moreover,
the yield and
quality of
production can
be improved
during
cultivation if
attention is
given to
genetic
improvement
and the
adoption of
efficient farm
management
methods,
making
planting an
attractive
option: for
many wild
trees,
including
indigenous
fruits, a
two-fold yield
improvement or
more is
possible
through
genetic
selection
(Jamnadass et
al. 2011).</p>
<p>When
bringing trees
from the wild
into
cultivation it
is essential
to increase
yields: if
indigenous
trees are
perceived as
relatively
unproductive,
agriculture in
deforested
areas is
likely to be
dominated by
staple crops
and
agro-biodiversity
will be
reduced
(Sunderland
2011). Some
food-providing
trees
and palms,
especially
fruit-producing
ones, have
been managed
by people in a
transition
from the wild
to cultivation
in
farmland for
millennia,
resulting in
complex
agroforestry
systems that
contain many
different
foods; for
other tree
foods, the
move to
domestication
is much more
recent and is
based on
scientific
inquiry
(Torquebiau
1984, Clement
2004). A
combination of
indigenous and
exotic tree
foods in
agroforestry
systems
supports
nutrition, the
stability of
production,
and farmers’
incomes.
Mixtures of
fruit trees
that spread
production
provide a
year- round
supply of
important
nutrients
(fig. 1).</p>
<p>As well as
directly
providing
edible
products,
agroforestry
trees support
food
production by
a range of
other means,
including by
providing
shade
and support
for crops that
need it,
supporting
animal
production and
improving soil
fertility.
Agroforestry
has an
important role
in increasing
the
yields of
vegetables
that, with
fruit, provide
varied and
nutritionally-balanced
diets rather
than calories
alone (Susila
et al. 2012).
Trees can
modify the
microclimate
for garden
crops under
harsh climates
and support
climbing
plants such as
yam (Maliki et
al. 2012). In
an initiative
in East
Africa, more
than 200 000
smallholder
dairy farmers
are growing
fodder shrubs
as
supplementary
feed. The
typical
increase in
milk yield
achieved is
enabling
smallholders
to raise extra
revenue from
milk sales of
more than USD
100 per cow
per year, and
allows farmers
to provide
more milk more
efficiently to
urban
consumers
(Place et al.
2009).</p>
<h4>Figure 1</h4>
<p>A fruit
tree
‘portfolio’
consisting of
nine tree
species
fruiting at
different
times of the
year. The
portfolio
shown is based
on
indigenous
fruits in
Malawi.</p>
<p
style="margin-left:1.64in;margin-top:0.06in;margin-bottom:0in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><strong>M</strong><strong>on</strong><strong>t</strong><strong>h</strong><strong>l</strong><strong>y </strong><strong>availa</strong><strong>b</strong><strong>ili</strong><strong>t</strong><strong>y </strong><strong>o</strong><strong>f </strong><strong>r</strong><strong>i</strong><strong>p</strong><strong>e </strong><strong>f</strong><strong>r</strong><strong>u</strong><strong>i</strong><strong>t </strong><strong>o</strong><strong>n </strong><strong>t</strong><strong>r</strong><strong>ee</strong><strong>s</strong></span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Oct</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Jan</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Feb</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Mar</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Apr</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">May</span></span></p>
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style="margin-left:0.04in;margin-top:0.07in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Jun</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Jul</span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Aug</span></span></p>
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style="margin-left:0.07in;margin-top:0.07in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Sep</span></span></p>
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<p
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>U</i><i>apa</i><i>c</i><i>a</i><i> </i><i>k</i><i>i</i><i>r</i><i>k</i><i>i</i><i>an</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>S</i><i>t</i><i>r</i><i>yc</i><i>hno</i><i>s</i><i> </i><i>c</i><i>o</i><i>cc</i><i>u</i><i>l</i><i>o</i><i>i</i><i>de</i><i>s</i></span></span></p>
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<p
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style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>A</i><i>z</i><i>an</i><i>z</i><i>a</i><i> </i><i>ga</i><i>r</i><i>ck</i><i>ean</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
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<p
style="margin-left:0.05in;margin-top:0.02in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>F</i><i>l</i><i>a</i><i>c</i><i>ou</i><i>r</i><i>t</i><i>i</i><i>a</i><i> </i><i>i</i><i>nd</i><i>i</i><i>c</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr
valign="TOP">
<td
width="156"
height="26">
<p
style="margin-left:0.05in;margin-top:0.03in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>V</i><i>angue</i><i>r</i><i>i</i><i>a</i><i> </i><i>i</i><i>n</i><i>f</i><i>au</i><i>s</i><i>t</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr
valign="TOP">
<td
width="156"
height="25">
<p
style="margin-left:0.05in;margin-top:0.03in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>V</i><i>i</i><i>t</i><i>e</i><i>x</i><i> </i><i>don</i><i>i</i><i>an</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr
valign="TOP">
<td
width="156"
height="24">
<p
style="margin-left:0.06in;margin-top:0.03in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>A</i><i>dan</i><i>s</i><i>on</i><i>i</i><i>a</i><i> </i><i>d</i><i>i</i><i>g</i><i>i</i><i>t</i><i>a</i><i>t</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr
valign="TOP">
<td
width="156"
height="25">
<p
style="margin-left:0.07in;margin-top:0.03in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>Z</i><i>i</i><i>z</i><i>i</i><i>phu</i><i>s</i><i> </i><i>mau</i><i>r</i><i>i</i><i>t</i><i>i</i><i>an</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr
valign="TOP">
<td
width="156"
height="20">
<p
style="margin-left:0.07in;margin-top:0.03in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"><i>P</i><i>a</i><i>r</i><i>i</i><i>na</i><i>r</i><i>i</i><i> </i><i>c</i><i>u</i><i>r</i><i>ate</i><i>lli</i><i>fo</i><i>li</i><i>a</i></span></span></p>
</td>
<td width="32"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="31">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="6">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="34">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="37">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="36">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="33"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
<td width="35"
bgcolor="#7e7e7e">
<p> </p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p
style="margin:0.05in
0.1in 0in
0.08in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">At
least one
species in the
portfolio is
ripe every
month,
including over
traditional
periods of
hunger due to
lulls in the
production of
staple crops
(around
January and
February in
Malawi). Based
on the vitamin
C content of
the fruit of
these trees
and the
recommended
daily dietary
intake, ~50%
of the vitamin
C needs
of an adult
man can be met
by the daily
consumption of
100 g of fruit
pulp of one of
two species,
azanza
(<i>A</i><i>zanza</i><i> </i><i>garckean</i><i>a</i>)
or bush orange
(<i>S</i><i>trychnos</i><i> </i><i>cocculoide</i><i>s</i>),
for the
period
November to
March, with
only 25 g
daily of the
vitamin C-rich
baobab (<i>A</i><i>dansonia</i><i> </i><i>digitata</i>)
fruit pulp
providing
the
requirement
for the rest
of the year,
excluding
October.
Knowing the
vitamin
contents and
phenologies of
different
fruits allows
them to be
combined
appropriately
in
cultivation.
Fruit
production can
also be spread
across the
year by
cultivating
late- and
early-fruiting
varieties of a
particular
species and/or
by applying to
only some
trees pruning
or coppicing
practices to
delay
production.
Source:
modified from
Jamnadass et
al.
(2011).</span></span></p>
<p
style="margin:0.05in
0.1in 0in
0.08in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt"> </span></span></p>
<p>An analysis
of more than
90
peer-reviewed
studies on
soil fertility
improvement
found
consistent
evidence of
higher maize
yields in
Africa from
planting
nitrogen-fixing
green
fertilisers,
including
trees and
shrubs,
although the
level of
response
varied by soil
type and
technology
(Sileshi et
al. 2008). As
well as
increasing
average
yields, the
planting of
trees as green
fertilisers in
southern
Africa is able
to stabilise
crop
production in
drought years
and during
other extreme
weather
events, and
improve crop
rain use
efficiency
(Sileshi et
al. 2011,
2012) (fig.
2). This is
important
for food
security in
the context of
climate
change, which
is increasing
drought
incidence in
the region.</p>
<p>Supporting
the
regeneration
of natural
vegetation in
agroforestry
systems can
also provide
significant
benefits for
staple crops
production.
Farmer-managed
natural
regeneration
(FMNR) of
faidherbia (<em>Faidherbia albida</em>)
and other
leguminous
trees in
dryland
agroforests
(parklands) in
semi-arid and
sub-humid
Africa is a
good example.
Since 1985,
FMNR has been
supported in
Niger by a
policy shift
that awarded
tree
tenure to
farmers (as
well as by
more
favourable
wetter
weather); it
has led to the
‘regreening’
of
approximately
5 million
hectares
(Sendzimir et
al. 2011).
FMNR in the
Sahel has led
to
improvements
in sorghum and
millet yields,
and positive
relationships
have been
observed with
dietary
diversity and
household
income (Place
and Binam
2013).</p>
<h4>Figure 2</h4>
<p><span
style="font-size:1em">Maize
yields in five
districts in
Malawi with
and without
the
intervention
of the
Agroforestry
Food Security
Programme.
Figures are
based on 283
beneficiaries
and 200
non-beneficiaries
distributed
across
districts.</span></p>
<p><span
style="font-size:1em"><img
moz-do-not-send="true" style="margin: 6px auto; display: block;"
alt="Overstory258Fig2"
width="397"
height="368"></span></p>
<p
style="margin-right:0.16in;margin-top:0.06in;line-height:0.13in"><span
style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size:8pt">Note:
bars represent
95% confidence
intervals; in
three cases
(Dedza,
Mulanje and
Salima) the
difference
between
categories is
statistically
significant.</span></span></p>
<h2>Agroforestry
for incomes to
support access
to food</h2>
<p>Examples
from Africa of
widely traded
agroforestry
tree foods
that support
farmers’
incomes
include the
indigenous
semi-domesticated
and
widely
cultivated
fruit safou (<em>Dacryodes edulis</em>,
Schreckenberg
et al. 2006),
the indigenous
incipient
domesticate
shea nut
(<em>Vitellaria paradoxa</em>,
Masters and
Addaquay 2011)
and exotic
mango. New
commercial
markets for
fruit are
developing in
Africa as a
result
of recent
investments by
Coca Cola, Del
Monte and
others to
source produce
locally for
juice
manufacture.
The production
of timber and
other
agroforestry
tree products
for markets
also provide
incomes for
food purchase.
Many trees are
cultivated to
provide
medicines from
bark, leaves,
roots, etc.,
which are sold
to support
incomes and
are used for
self
treatment,
supporting the
health of
communities
along with the
provision of
healthy foods
(Muriuki et
al. 2012).</p>
<p>Market data
recorded for
agroforestry
tree products
are sparse,
but
information on
export value
is quantified
for tree
commodity
crops such as
palm
oil (derived
from oil palm,
<em>Elaeis guineensis</em>),
coffee
(primarily
from <em>Coffea arabica</em>),
rubber (from
<em>Hevea brasiliensis</em>),
cocoa (from
cacao, <em>Theobroma cacao</em>)
and tea
(primarily
from <em>Camellia sinensis</em>).
Each of
these crops is
grown to a
significant
extent by
smallholders,
as illustrated
in Indonesia
where, in
2011, small
farms were
estimated to
contribute
42%, 96%, 85%,
94% and 46% of
the country’s
total
production
area for palm
oil, coffee,
rubber, cocoa
and tea,
respectively
(Government of
Indonesia
2013). Unlike
Indonesia,
many countries
do not
formally
differentiate
between
smallholder
and
larger-scale
plantation
production,
but more
than 67% of
coffee
produced
worldwide is
estimated to
be from
smallholdings
(International
Coffee
Organization
2013), while
the figure is
90% for
cocoa
(International
Cocoa
Organization
2013).</p>
<p>Taken
together, the
annual export
value of the
above five
tree commodity
crops is tens
of billions of
USD (FAO
2013a). Less
clear is the
proportion
of the export
value that
accrues to
smallholder
producers, but
often
production
constitutes a
considerable
proportion of
farm takings.
There is a
danger,
however, that
the planting
of commodities
will result in
the conversion
of natural
forest – which
contains
important
local foods –
to
agricultural
land, and a
risk that food
crops will be
displaced from
farmland in a
trend towards
the growing of
monocultures
(e.g., oil
palm,
Danielsen et
al. 2009).
Buying food
using the
income
received from
a single
commodity crop
can also lead
to food
insecurity for
farm
households
when
payments are
one-off,
delayed or
unpredictable
in value.
Monocultures
also reduce
resilience to
shocks such as
drought, flood
and, often
(although not
always), the
outbreak of
pests and
diseases. As a
result, tree
commodity
crops are
sometimes
viewed
sceptically
within
agricultural
production-based
strategies to
improve
nutrition (FAO
2012). For
farmers who
have too
little land to
cultivate
enough food to
meet their
needs,
however,
incomes from
tree commodity
crops may be
the only way
to obtain
sufficient
food (Arnold
1990).</p>
<p>Mixed
agroforestry
regimes can
help to avoid
many of the
negative
effects
described
above by
combining tree
commodities in
diverse
production
systems with
locally
important food
trees, staple
crops,
vegetables and
edible fungi.
Such regimes
include shade
coffee and
shade cocoa
systems
(Jagoret et
al. 2011,
2012,
Sustainable
Cocoa
Initiative
2013), which
increase or at
least do not
decrease
commodity
yields and
profitability
(Clough
et al. 2011).
Such systems
have often
been
traditionally
practised but
are now being
actively
encouraged
through
certification
and other
schemes by
some
international
purchasers of
tree commodity
crops (Millard
2011). There
are also
opportunities
to develop
valuable new
tree
commodities
that are
compatible
with other
crops. Not all
tree
commodities
are, however,
amenable to
production in
diversified
systems, for
example, oil
palm is not
well
suited (Donald
2004).</p>
<h2>Agroforestry,
fuel and food</h2>
<p>Traditional
energy sources
have received
little
attention in
current energy
debates, but
firewood and
charcoal from
trees are
crucial for
the
survival and
well-being of
perhaps two
billion
people,
enabling them
to cook food
to make it
safe for
consumption
and palatable
and to release
the
energy within
it (FAO 2008).
In sub-Saharan
Africa, the
use of
charcoal is
still
increasing
rapidly, with
the value of
the charcoal
industry there
approximately
USD 8 billion
in 2007 (World
Bank 2011).
The charcoal
industry is
therefore
important for
food and
nutritional
security,
because it
produces both
energy and
income; with
the increasing
prices of
‘modern’
energy
sources, this
situation is
unlikely to
change for
some
time.</p>
<p>In poor
households,
firewood and
charcoal are
often burnt in
open fires or
poorly-functioning
stoves with
substantial
emissions of
pollutants
(especially
from firewood)
that damage
human health
and may lead
to the deaths
of more than
one million
people
annually
worldwide, the
majority women
(Bailis et al.
2005). Fuel
quality
depends on the
tree species
being burnt,
with poor
families often
using species
that were
traditionally
avoided
because of
their harmful
smoke or that
were
maintained for
other products
such as fruit
(Brouwer et
al. 1997).</p>
<p>Reduced
access and
increased
prices of
wood-based
biomass have
led to
initiatives to
promote
agroforestry
cultivation.
Where
smallholders
practise
agroforestry,
less fuelwood
needs to be
purchased,
there is less
reliance on
collecting
from natural
stands, and
less time is
involved in
collection.
This leaves
more time for
income-generating
activities,
especially for
women who are
usually the
major fuelwood
collectors
(Thorlakson
and Neufeldt
2012). Access
to cooking
fuel provides
people with
more
flexibility in
what they can
eat, including
foods with
better
nutritional
profiles that
require more
energy to
cook. The
cultivation of
woodlots
allows the
production of
wood that is
less harmful
when burnt and
has higher
energy
content.
The use of
better stoves
– with greater
efficiency –
reduces
greenhouse gas
emissions
relative to
the energy
generated for
cooking
purposes.</p>
<h2>Agroforestry,
ecosystem
services,
climate change
and food</h2>
<p>Agroforestry
trees provide
important
ecosystem
services
including:
soil, spring,
stream and
watershed
protection;
animal and
plant
biodiversity
conservation;
and carbon
sequestration
and storage,
all of which
ultimately
affect food
and
nutritional
security
(Garrity
2004).
Individual
farmers
can be
encouraged to
preserve and
reinforce
functions that
extend beyond
their farms by
payments for
ecosystem
services, but
more important
in
determining
their
behaviour is
the direct
products and
services they
receive from
trees
(Roshetko et
al. 2007a). An
advantage of
smallholder
agroforestry
systems is
that they can
perform wider
services while
directly
supporting
local
production
(Leakey 2010).</p>
<p>Appropriate
combinations
of crops,
animals and
trees in
agroforestry
systems can
not only
increase farm
yields, but
promote
ecological and
social
resilience to
change because
the various
components of
a system and
the
interactions
between them
will respond
in differing
ways to
disturbances.
A
diversity of
species and
functions
within
integrated
production
systems is
therefore a
risk reduction
strategy, and
agroforestry
is recognised
as an
important
component in
climate-smart
agriculture
for both its
adaptation and
mitigation
roles
(Neufeldt et
al. 2012). For
example, soil
fertility
improvement
technologies
can stabilise
crop yields in
drought
conditions. In
Niger, farmers
explain that
increasing the
number of tree
species per
function
insures them
against
‘function
failure’ in
their farming
systems
because at
least some
species will
provide each
required
function even
in the driest
years (Faye et
al. 2011). In
western Kenya,
subsistence
farmers
practising
agroforestry
(e.g., for
soil erosion
control,
improving soil
fertility and
fuelwood
provision)
identify more
coping
strategies
when exposed
to
climate-related
hazards than
those who do
not
practise
agroforestry
(Thorlakson
and Neufeldt
2012).</p>
<p>Kristjanson
et al. (2012)
explored the
relationship
between food
security and
farmer
innovation in
the context of
changing
circumstances,
including
climate
variability,
with farmers
in Ethiopia,
Kenya, Uganda
and the United
Republic of
Tanzania. A
strong
positive
relationship
was
demonstrated
between food
security and
the adoption
of new farming
practices,
although it
was not
possible to
determine
whether this
was because
innovative
households are
more
food-secure as
a result of
innovation, or
if more
food-secure
households are
better placed
to
subsequently
innovate. Many
of the
700 surveyed
households
were
practising
agroforestry,
but generally
they were only
planting small
numbers of
trees,
suggesting
that there is
a need to
understand why
there has not
been wider
uptake of
agroforestry.
Possibly, the
initial
investment
required
before
benefits are
received from
trees
(perhaps some
years after
planting) is
an important
factor.</p>
<p>A diversity
of trees in
farmland and
neighbouring
natural forest
fragments,
where present,
supports
populations of
pollinator
species such
as
insects and
birds that are
essential for
the production
of many crops
(Garibaldi et
al. 2013).
Many fruit
tree species
that are
important as
human
foods rely on
insect
pollinators
for their
production
(Klein et al.
2007), while
diverse farms
that provide
an alternative
habitat for
pollinator
communities
can support
the
regeneration
of food plants
in
neighbouring
forests (Hagen
and Kraemer
2010).</p>
<hr>
<h2>References</h2>
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</div>
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<div
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<hr>
<h2><strong>Original
Source</strong></h2>
<div
align="left">
<div
align="left">
<div
align="left">
<div
align="left">
<div
align="left">
<p>This
article was
excerpted from
the original
with the kind
permission of
the publisher
from:</p>
<p>Jamnadass
R, Place F,
Torquebiau E,
Malézieux E,
Iiyama M,
Sileshi GW,
Kehlenbeck K,
Masters E,
McMullin S,
Weber JC,
Dawson IK.
2013.
Agroforestry,
food and
nutritional
security.
ICRAF Working
Paper No. 170.
Nairobi, World
Agroforestry
Centre. DOI: <a
moz-do-not-send="true"
href="http://agroforestry.net/index.php?option=com_acymailing&no_html=1&ctrl=url&urlid=65&mailid=23&subid=926"
target="_blank">http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP13054.PDF</a></p>
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<hr>
<h2><strong>Authors</strong></h2>
<div
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<div
align="left">
<p>Ramni
Jamnadass,
Frank Place,
Miyuki Iiyama,
Gudeta
Sileshi, Katja
Kehlenbeck,
Eliot Masters,
Stepha
McMullin and
Ian Dawson
work for the
World
Agroforestry
Centre
(ICRAF).</p>
<p>Emmanuel
Torquebiau and
Eric Malézieux
work for CIRAD
(Agricultural
Research for
Development),
34398
Montpellier
CX5, France.</p>
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